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As a market data provider we offer a comprehensive, holistic overview of the market and crypto trends. As cryptography is the backbone of blockchain technology, a sophisticated encryption protocol e. ZKP is expected to address the problem of public blockchain privacy and security. Easily implementable protocols for smart contracts pooling transactions together to anonymise transactions can also help address privacy concerns.
Privacy and anonymity will enhance the use of blockchains for compliance and auditing. Indeed, if institutions allow the adoption of blockchain technology for compliance and auditing purposes, MNEs can create a technological base that can be used across different markets with relevant savings and risk mitigation.
Compliance and auditing are increasing challenges for MNEs due to the complex structures of crisscrossing intercompany transactions in cross-country jurisdictions Zhang et al. However, there are advanced blockchain solutions that can help solve the compliance and audit problem for MNEs, which work across multiple jurisdictions Zhang et al. Trust Trust is fundamental to achieving efficient mechanisms in market exchanges or transactions.
Institutional trust — the legal, political and social systems that support the monitoring and sanctioning of human behaviour — is perhaps the most important element of trust Zucker, The modern global economy is built on compounding layers of trust: we trust tech giants, banks, insurance companies and governments Samani, Enormous resources currently go into generating trust, which makes trust-based systems rather expensive Fairfield, Given global complexity, detecting abuses of trust has become more difficult than ever e.
For the first time in human history, by using open networks bound by cryptography and free-market economics, specific human behaviours can be incentivised without creating new trust assumptions Samani, or relying on expensive trust-based systems. Instead of trusting banks, courts and governments, it is possible to trust math and computation in the form of open-source cryptographic protocols Werbach, Blockchain design will provide individuals with a sense of security and protection from hacking so that trust is implicitly provided Vaz and Brown, Furthermore, all global systemic risk for example, the risk of an entire financial system collapsing is built on trust.
Systemic risk and the potential for catastrophic failure appear to be, unfortunately, a feature of the large-scale systems enabling modern life. Apart from the systemic financial risks, other systemic risk systems include epidemics, species extinction, power grids and global communication.
By creating a world with fewer trust assumptions, particularly compliance with multiple jurisdictions for MNEs, through the use of blockchain, we can reduce systemic risk and ultimately create healthier and more productive economies and societies Samani, For example, in the current COVID crisis, if the World Health Organisation had a blockchain where any authorised health worker could deposit information on a new virus, disease or other potential critical hazards to populations, this information would be stored and could be used to more easily and at greater speed not only to trace the origins but also to help understand the potential risks of high spread.
Business processes and business models MNE business processes, such as new product development and knowledge management, can be a source of competitive advantage Buckley and Carter, , and several MNEs are today using blockchain to improve their intra- and inter-organisational business processes. For example, global firms routinely spend hundreds of millions of dollars on customer relationship management, enterprise resource planning and supply chain management systems, as well as on other internal record systems.
In an effort to drive operational efficiencies, existing processes are simplified and costs are taken out of existing processes by removing intermediaries or the administrative effort of record-keeping and transaction reconciliation Carson et al. Other business process improvements include standardisation, increased efficiency and transparency and eliminating errors, fraud, duplication and waste. For example, TradeLens, the global blockchain shipping platform a consortium which includes IBM, Maersk Line and Standard Chartered , seeks to provide its users with a secure and real-time exchange of supply chain data and paperwork.
Initiatives such as these are bound to redefine the nature of the international trade ecosystem, characterised by complex processes, slow turnaround times, manual documentation, mistrust between agents and limited connectivity between the various parties involved Huillet, Even more importantly, blockchain combined with machine learning can power new digital business models built on the internet. While the internet started as an open, decentralised network, over time, we saw large centralised digital companies — particularly Google, Apple, Facebook and Amazon — emerge to dominate the internet landscape Dixon, ; Evans, However, while customers gained access to path-breaking technologies, this stifled innovation and created broad societal tension e.
We are now starting to see the rise of novel business models community-governed, decentralised digital ecosystems powered by tokens ; decentralised finance DeFi , decentralised computation and decentralised storage are some examples. These tokens, the fifth protocol of the internet, will be used to exchange value, verify contracts and track identity and reputation, among other things Ravikant, It is likely that we will see a rise of a new breed of MNEs that may co-exist with centralised platforms.
Contributions to the special issue We now turn our attention to the three papers that constitute this special issue. Blockchain is, in itself, an emerging topic for firms and business academia. For context, a truncated artificial intelligence search resulted in 1, items.
The relative lack of blockchain research in these journals motivated us to organise this special issue. We were very fortunate with the range of articles we received, and the three papers accepted cover a wide range of perspectives at the intersection of IB and blockchain technology. Hasan et al. Grounding their study in transactional cost analysis Williamson, and the problems associated with contracting and the asymmetry of information, the authors were interested in how blockchain could be used to decrease operational costs and, thus, increase operational efficiency, and how an incremental versus big bang approach to blockchain implementation changes the operational efficiency.
These results, and the fact that younger and smaller firms have better operational efficiency results when implementing blockchain technology in their operations compared with older and larger ones, indicate that blockchains require time and openness to new approaches and are easier to implement in less complex organisations.
They were particularly interested in international finance; banking and insurance; international supply chain management and logistics; and international marketing and advertising. Using the functions of global governance as their lens to understand the effect of blockchain application on MNEs, the authors uncovered some intriguing phenomena. The case studies explain how blockchains can be used to improve property rights and data privacy and, at the same time, be used for recordkeeping and reporting.
Regardless of the advantages of blockchain technology, the authors caution against the dark side of blockchain applications and usage. The lack of blockchain standards among industries or networks, energy consumption and the fact that blockchains can serve to cover up illicit operations should carry weight in global governance decisions. To this end, the important distinction between public and private blockchain technology emerges as it has important implications and considerations for the potential use of blockchains for unethical and illegal operations.
In the final article of this special issue, Tsiulin et al. The authors found three main contexts where blockchain is being used: document workflow management, device connectivity and financial processes. For workflow management, the authors found that due to the overall and well-known constraints that GVCs face namely in terms of lack of trust, miscommunication, information security and data falsification , blockchain technology is indeed a feasible and interesting solution that is already being adopted by several companies.
Furthermore, the authors explain that even for internal handling of documents in ports, blockchains can be used to improve trailer and container security and flow, and port gate queuing, among others. For financial processes, the authors discuss the usage of cryptocurrency and the benefits to the industry but also the constraints that they face from institutions.
Finally, the authors discuss the implementation of IoT on containers, for example, and how blockchains can be used to trace and improve the security of goods. However, and interestingly, none of the projects analysed used all three contexts. The authors also found that the academic literature, particularly when using blockchains to solve GVC problems, is falling behind industry creation and implementation of blockchain solutions, inviting us to look ahead and explore how academic guidance can be used to inform practitioners and policymakers.
Some common themes emerged from the three papers accepted to this special issue. We used them to frame our next section, which considers future research, as well as to complement the discussion and contributions from each individual manuscript. Before we move towards a research agenda, it is worth noting that these three articles reflect a multitude of methodological approaches that span from longitudinal panel data, to case studies, and systematic literature and project reviews.
This methodological diversity, even within three papers, indicates the broad epistemological approach that blockchain technology is having in the managerial field of academia, which represents an expansion from a very technical field to a broader nature that welcomes qualitative research and abstractive reasoning that might lead to new theories or even fields, as we further discuss below.
International business and blockchain: towards a research agenda Future of global payments In , Nobel Prize winner Milton Friedman remarked in an interview that the internet was poised to become one of the major forces reducing the role of government Friedman, The only thing missing, but which would soon be developed, was reliable e-cash, a method whereby one could transfer funds from A to B on the internet without A knowing B or B knowing A. Today, many remain sceptical about digital currencies, citing large energy needs, technological limitations e.
Yet, if the growth in blockchain-wallet users continues to mirror that of internet users, then, by the end of the decade, they will number some million — quadruple the current level. This growth will be encouraged by governments, banks, corporates and payment providers who all stand to benefit from the digitalisation of payments Deutsche Bank, As Bitcoin and other freely floating cryptocurrencies continue to exhibit extreme volatility relative to fiat currencies, there has been a much greater focus on stablecoins i.
Morgan, Other central banks may follow to adopt a cryptocurrency, enabling peer-to-peer transactions without intermediaries commercial banks and in the absence of trust. In addition, many central banks have started to seriously examine a supranational multi-currency-backed token as a replacement global reserve asset J.
Stablecoins, in particular, seem to be gaining traction, and not only for speedy transfers between exchanges but also for business transactions by e-commerce marketplaces, advertising networks, luxury goods producers, recruiting platforms, digital content markets and software firms. This implies significant global demand from SMEs seeking the safety and utility of digital dollars De, Factors that facilitate or hinder adoption of digital and cryptocurrencies as well as stablecoins — nationally and globally — will continue to be a fascinating topic for further research in IB.
Future of global finance Centralised finance cannot be truly borderless as it is tied to specific geographic locations with specific fiat currencies, so moving capital and value across borders often encounters friction and delay Chen and Bellavitis, In contrast, DeFi — access to financial applications in a truly decentralised and censorship-resistant environment — is inherently borderless; hence, transferring value across the globe may become as easy as sending an email Chen and Bellavitis, DeFi, at its core, includes infrastructure, markets, technology, methods and applications, enabling the decentralised provision of financial services Zetzsche et al.
More specifically, it includes open protocols, public smart contract platforms such as the Ethereum blockchain , decentralised exchanges, stablecoins and decentralised applications dApps Schar, It is still a niche market compared to traditional finance with relatively low volumes, but the value of the market i. DeFi has unleashed a wave of innovation in the form of trustless versions of traditional financial instruments as well as entirely new financial instruments e.
Schar believes that DeFi constitutes a paradigm shift in the financial industry and could potentially contribute towards a more robust and transparent financial infrastructure. While neobanks and fintech firms are offering customers more control of their assets, they remain intermediaries to be trusted; by contrast, DeFi infrastructure offers full control of assets due to decentralisation inherent in blockchain technology.
If the promise of DeFi materialises, then worldwide participation regardless of social status will be possible. A particularly exciting topic for IB researchers would be to explore the socio-economic implications of DeFi for the global financial system. Future of the multinational enterprises Today, the vast majority of economic activity is conducted via corporations — inventions from the s.
Back then, they were joint-stock companies, and innovations such as capital structures and limited liability followed. It became feasible to organise large-scale economic activity and coordinate human behaviour without the need for a centralised corporation unlike other digital platforms such as Uber or Airbnb. Such collaboration in a trustless environment is possible because of the encoding of consensus mechanisms, incentives and disincentives and contracts built into software Allen et al.
Indeed, many scholars Davidsonet al. The primary effects of institutional technologies such as blockchain are, according to Allen et al. Decentralised networks built on blockchain can and will provide a wide variety of digital services e. But these networks offer a very different organising model for the provision of these services — more like a mutually owned company, a cooperative or a credit union than a traditional corporation Grossman, — with the capacity to do this at a global scale.
We believe that this is an intriguing question, and we welcome both empirical and conceptual research on this issue. Many start-ups work on the development of theoretically borderless blockchain technologies, from protocols to consumer-facing applications, having a global footprint right from the start.
These new ventures provide fertile ground to study international new ventures McDougall et al. Current theoretical frameworks in IB and international entrepreneurship are grounded in economic research on tangible goods Zander et al. Because of that, there is the opportunity to broaden IB theoretical foundations and empirical research to reflect the realities of the digital world Zalan, Finally, some Davidson et al.
Considering that new ventures are experimenting with developing technologies, such as smart contracts, and incentive mechanisms for coordinating human activity across borders through decentralised autonomous organisations, which do not rely on hierarchical governance, some might question Zalan, whether these unconventional organisational forms challenge the core assumptions of the very existence of MNEs.
Thus, will blockchain bean enabler of new organisational forms? Or will there be new globally scalable business models enabled by blockchain and cryptocurrencies? Global value chain As Tsiulin et al. Frequently being the orchestrators in the GVC Buckley, allows MNEs to be in a higher-power position compared to the constellations of firms that supply products or services.
However, these power differences might be problematic to GVC sustainability. Thus, it is important to understand if blockchains can help prevent monopolistic approaches and reduce exploitation of suppliers. Thus, more research is needed to understand how blockchains can be used for sustainability purposes and to ensure ethical practices. Another eminent use of blockchain is for international contracting.
Blockchain technology challenges some of the core assumptions underlying the existence and functioning of MNEs. If we think about exporters, the most common form of internationalisation Cassiman and Golovko, , a critical issue that managers face relates to the asymmetries of information between buyers and suppliers Williamson, Even if the buyer locates a supplier who wants to work with them, there are still several risks that each market agent needs to consider, for example, quality control concerning payment issues, logistics, accounting and reporting, among others Buckley and Casson, Having smart contracts in place provides the potential to mitigate many of these issues.
However, and once again, we know very little about what happens with contracts that are immutable, or difficult to alter, when externalities change. We also know little about the risks of smart contracts for the different agents involved. Further still, we know little about what local institutions do to overwrite or terminate smart contracts. From a legal and accounting perspective, do we need to regulate blockchain and cryptocurrencies around the world?
These new frameworks will impact not only large MNEs, the orchestrators in the global factory framework Buckley , , , but also SMEs — frequently the exporters. More research is needed on both types of firms and also how blockchains will change the dynamics and the mechanisms that enhance their transactions. Finally, we learned from papers in this special issue that blockchains are particularly useful for simple, routine and not complex operations; thus, some might question where the boundary conditions are for smart contracts being used in complex GVC transactions.
Given that one can never predict all possible outcomes and situations, what are the risks to lawyers who draft smart contracts? Should unpredictable situations be moved to formal institutions? Would formal institutions accept smart contracts that are country borderless? United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and the multinationals. The United Nations published the agenda for sustainable development by advancing a group of goals relating to peace and prosperity for our planet United Nations, Blockchains can play an important role in many of these goals.
For example, an important recurrent topic relating to waste is packaging waste. Packaging waste is relevant to at least six of these goals 6, 11, 12, 13, 14 and Considering that blockchains can enhance the traceability, prevent data tampering and verify authenticity, some can argue that, for example, large MNEs can use blockchains to build incentives to enhance recycling of their packaging and thus enhance a truly circular economy.
However, several questions remain. How can MNEs create frameworks to enhance a circular economy approach to their products and packaging using blockchain in practice? How can blockchains be used by end-users to enhance other United Nations sustainable goals, for example by helping to create smart grids for poor regions? Similarly, how can blockchains enhance smart cities and help to improve their sustainability? However, we also need to consider the problems that blockchain technology can itself bring in achieving these sustainable goals.
For example, what are the consequences of blockchain mining and proof-of-work? How can we become more energy efficient when it comes to blockchain mining and proof-of-work? If we are seeing an increase of blockchain farming in developing economies, what are the implications for the United Nations Sustainable Goals?
Indeed, relevant blockchain publications primarily focus on the technological and business-related topics Risius and Spohrer, , but much less is known about other components of well-being, such as economic, environmental, social, cultural, psychological, physical, spiritual and cultural Newey and Torres de Oliveira, Thus, future research on blockchain technology should consider different academic perspectives and invite different concepts, theories and fields to inform the potential and limitations of blockchains in a holistic way, considering global sustainable development.
Ecosystem development Gellman explains that to increase the efficiency of a socio-economic system we should follow a disintermediation strategy. As several articles in this special issue point out, blockchain technology has the potential to cut out the middleman and thus help with a disintermediation strategy Torres de Oliveira et al.
With shortened product cycle times Ferreira et al. However — and even if blockchain technology can enhance mechanisms of coordination between agents — how does this happen in practice? How can blockchain technology be in place to recompensate agents, users or other firms in the network in relation to innovation co-creation processes?
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